Kidneys Are Crazy...

I have learned so much this year through anatomy and physiology its not even right...

Our kidneys are what controls the major work for our urinary system. It is major pathways and storage areas as well. Key functions of the kidneys are:

1) Regulation of blood ionic composition. Which means it takes care of the most important electrolytes in our body... like sodium ions, potassium ions, and calcium ions!

2) Regulation of blood pH. If we do not have a pH of 7.35-7.45 we are in a coma if not dead... very important.

3) Regulation of blood volume. Kidneys will control our volume of blood by conserving or elimination water in the urine.

4) Regulation of blood pressure!!! (We learned all about this in lecture last day of class!!! Won't forget it Dana ;) ) Kidneys help regulate blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin which activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway.

5) Production of hormones! We all know we need these bad boys... Kidneys produce Calcitriol which is the active form of vitamin D helping to regulate calcium homeostasis and it produces erythropoietin which stimulates production of red blood cells that we need LOTS OF!

6) Excretion of wastes and foreign substances. Kidneys help excrete wastes that have no value what so ever for our body. We mide as well piss em' out right?

Our Kidneys are so important they only take up 0.5% of our body mass if that... and receive 20-25% of the resting cardiac output!!! In adults renal blood flow is almost 1200 mL per minute. Whoa bettsy...

This information relates to me in my everyday life because... for one I got two kidneys :) and its nice to know why I have them, and what they are capable of doing. I learned also this very day that I can survive with just one, but I think I knew that because I know 2 NBA stars had to have kidney transplants due to a rare kidney disease (Alonzo Mourning & Sean Elliott). Also as a Surgical Technician I thrive to know as much as I can, and kidneys play a big role in peoples lives and answers questions to when people are sick.

Eat Your Chicken Get those proteins!!!

The Complement System (another amazing thing our body is capable of doing) consists of proteins that combat infection through inflammation, phagocytosis and cytolysis. It is a defensive system that is made up of over 30 proteins produced by the LIVER and found circulating in blood plasma and within tissues throughout the body. These proteins kill microbes by phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation.

The important proteins that lead the way are our C1- C9 complement proteins. They are all INACTIVE and only become ACTIVATED when split by ENZYMES into ACTIVE fragments. Our C3 protein is one that is split into ACTIVATED fragments that carry out the orders to destroy bad things joining the C1-C9 proteins.

C3 is activated in three different ways:

1) Classical Pathway

2) Alternative (go figure) Pathway

3) Lectin Pathway

Any pathway don't matter, activates C3 our goal... and once doing so C3 begins a sequence of reactions that consists of phagocytosis, cytolysis, and inflammation. The steps are:

1) Inactivated C3 splits into activated C3a and C3b. (2) C3b bind to the surface of a microbe (bad thing), then receptors on phagocytes attach to the C3b. C3b does a magic trick and enhances phagocytosis by coating the microbe with a process called opsonization which promotes attachment of a phagocyte to a microbe. (3) C3b then starts its own series of reactions that cause cytolysis. C3b splits C5 into activated C5a and C5b. C5b attaches to C6 and C7 which attach and attack the plasma membrane of an invading microbe. (4) C8 and several C9 molecules join the other complement proteins and together form a cylinder-shaped membrane attack complex (THE MAC ATTACK!!!) They literally puncture holes into the cell membrane of the bad cells and it results in cytolysis, the bursting of cells due to the extracellular fluid flowing in through the channels. (5) Wondering what happened to C3a and C5a? They bind to mast cells and they cause a release of histamine (UH OH!), which increases blood vessel permeability during inflammation. AND C5a... attracts phagocytes to the site of inflammation which ya know... takes care of microbial cells even more!!!

This along with the lymphatic system is so important just to know about. Its amazing how our body has like a back up plan if something doesn't catch the "bad" stuff. Its like Scottie Pippen to Michael Jordan or something... He couldn't do it all right?

Whats our Lymphatic System Do? =P

Who knew anything in our class about the lymphatic system before starting anatomy and physiology? Our body does amazing things, and the lymphatic system indeed takes part in the amazing. Each and every day our body has to fight off pathogens which are disease producing microbes like bacteria and viruses. We also get cuts, bumps, scratches, burns, and many other things our body protects us against. There is two types of resistances that our body fights against which is nonspecific and specific. The system of our very body that is responsible for specific resistance is the lymphatic system!!! It also does fight off some aspects of nonspecific resistance.

Our Lymphatic system has three primary fuctions:

1) Draining excess interstital fluid. Lymphatic vessels drain excess interstitial fluid from tissue spaces and return it to the blood.
2) Transporting dietary lipids. Lymphatic vessels transport lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract to the blood.
3) Carrying out immune responses. Lymphatic tissue initiates highly specific responses directed against particular microbes or abnormal cells.

Any pathogen that we have come across in our time is remembered due to our great lymphatic system and some special cells. We defend ourself against specific invading pathogens and foreign tissues each day and its called specific resistance or immunity. The cells and tissues that carry out immune responses can by physiologically considered a system so they are called the immune system. Immunity consists of two kinds of close responses called cell-mediated immune responses, and antibody-mediated immune responses. Cell- mediated immune responses are directed against intracellular pathogens, some cancer cells, and tissue transplants. Antibody-mediated immune responses are directed against extracelluar pathogens. They both lead to phagocytosis which then finishes the work =)

The lymphatic system is very important in our lives. Each day we do our everyday activities only because our special systems of our body protects us, lymphatic being one of the most important. Not being able to fight off pathogens would kill us in minutes due to the factor of rapid cell reproduction of pathogens.

Hows that blood get around?

Throughout our body we have many many arteries and veins. An artery carries blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood to the heart. Don't confuse the PULMONARY ARTERY to be a vein just because its deoxygenated blood... just trust the definitions. Arteries = Blood away from the heart, and Veins = Blood towards the heart. The Pulmonary Artery carries blood away from the heart to the lungs where it then gets oxygenated and brought back to the heart :).

There is two main circulatory routes and they are the systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation. The systemic carries oxgenated blood throughout the body to all locations, and the pulmonary carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart from all locations the blood is pumped to. If it doesn't ... there is a big problem.

Blood flow starts in the machine (the heart), and starts in the right ventricle as deoxygenated blood which travels to the pulmonary trunk to the right and left pulmonary arteries. Pulmonary arteries lead to each the right and the left lung which gain oxygen that we breath in, and return oxygenated blood to the left atrium (MAGIC!) through the corresponding right and left pulmonary veins. The Left atrium starts the pumping off to the rest of our body starting with the ascending aorta. The aorta is the largest artery of the body!


Blood Flow to Brain:

Brachiocephalic a.--> Rt. Common Carotid a.


Lt. Common Carotid a.
Rt./Lt. Internal Carotid aa.
Rt./Lt. Subclavian aa.-->
Rt./Lt. Vertebral aa.
Basilar a.

Circle of Willis:
Posterior & Anterior
Communicating aa.

Blood Flow from Brain:

Superior Sagittal Sinus
Confluence of Sinuses

Inferior Sagittal SinusàStraight Sinus
Rt./Lt. Tranverse Sinuses

Rt./Lt. Sigmoid sinuses
Rt./Lt. Internal Jugular vv.
Rt./Lt. Brachiocephalic vv.
Superior Vena Cava

Branches of the Abdominal Aorta:

Inferior Phrenic aa.--> Superior adrenal aa.
Celiac Trunk:
Lt. Gastric a.
Splenic a.
Common Hepatic a.--> Rt./Lt. Hepatic aa.
Rt./Lt. Middle Adrenal aa.
Rt./Lt. Renal aa.
Superior Mesenteric aa.
Rt./Lt. Gonadal aa.
Inferior Mesenteric a.
Rt./Lt. Lumbar aa.
Rt./Lt. Common Iliac aa.

Branches of the Inferior Vena Cava:
Inferior Phrenic vv.
Rt./Lt. Hepatic vv.
Rt./Lt. Renal vv.
Rt./Lt. Middle adrenal vv.
Rt./Lt. Gonadal vv.
Rt./Lt. Lumbar vv.
Rt./Lt. Common Iliac vv.

Liver Rt./Lt. Hepatic vv.Hepatic Portal Vein
Inferior Mesenteric v./Splenic v.
Superior Mesenteric v.

Blood Flow to Lower Extremity:
Rt./Lt. Common Iliac aa.
Rt./Lt. External Iliac aa.
Rt./Lt. Femoral aa.
Rt./Lt. Popliteal aa.
Rt./Lt. Ant. Tibial aa.
Rt./Lt. Dorsalis pedis artery
Rt./Lt. Posterior Tibial aa.
Rt./Lt. Fibular aa.
Rt./Lt. Medial/Lateral plantar aa.
Dorsal arch
Plantar arch
Digital aa.


Blood Flow from Lower Extremity:

Rt./Lt. Common Iliac vv.
Rt./Lt. External Iliac vv.
Rt./Lt. Femoral vv.
Rt./Lt. Deep femoral vv.
Rt./Lt. Popliteal vv.
Rt./Lt. Great saphenous vv.
Rt./Lt. Small saphenous vv.
Rt./Lt. Ant. Tibial vv.
Rt./Lt. Posterior Tibial vv.
Rt./Lt. Fibular vv.
Dorsal Venous arch
Plantar Venous arch Digital vv.


Blood Flow to the Upper Extremity:

Rt./Lt. Subclavian aa.
Rt./Lt. Axillary aa.
Rt./Lt. Brachial aa.
Rt./Lt. Radial aa.
Rt./Lt. Deep Palmar arch
Rt./Lt. Ulnar aa.
Rt./Lt. Superficial Palmar arch
Rt./Lt. Common Palmar Digital
Rt./Lt. Proper Palmar Digital

Blood Flow from the Upper Extremity:

Rt./Lt. Subclavian vv.
Rt./Lt. Axillary vv.
Rt./Lt. Cephalic vv.
Rt./Lt. Accessory Cephalic vv.
Rt./Lt. Basilic vv.
Rt./Lt. Dorsal Venous arch
Rt./Lt. Dorsal Digital
Rt./Lt. Brachial vv.
Rt./Lt. Radial vv.
Rt./Lt. Deep Palmar Venous arch
Rt./Lt. Ulnar vv.
Rt./Lt. Superficial Palmar Venous arch
Rt./Lt. Median Cubital vv.
Rt./Lt. Median Antebrachial vv.
Rt./Lt. Palmar Venous Plexous


This all relates to me in my everyday life because it is important for what I want to do with my career. I'm in the Surgical Technology Program and hoping to continue into Physican's Assistant. If I can not detect major arteries and veins I'm going to be in trouble, so I'm glad I learned them!!!

RH Factor

Never knew under wonderful Anatomy and Physiology II that you should really pay attention to your blood type, and especially your partners if you ever decide to have children. Any woman that is RH + is at risk of having a potential miscarriage or a mentally handicapped child if they make it through the whole process. And it is very dangerous for the woman herself in being RH+. Its very important for the mother to have RH- blood because anyone that is RH + that receives a transfusion of RH+ blood will get what is called hemolysis (rupture) of the red blood cells after clumping occurs, and other severe reactions may occur. So if a mother is RH + when delivering her child if any of her blood transfuses into a RH+ fetus baby this could be very bad, even though its bad enough that the baby is receiving blood through the placenta. This is what leads to brain issues, and some cases death. It cuts down on the oxygen being carried through our IgG's and pretty much deprives the fetus of very needed oxygen due to no lungs while inside the mother. It even works both ways for the mother though, if she received blood from her new born baby during delivery she would think she was still RH- , and if decided to have another child with what we call the Rogane Shot, there is a great chance the second child would not make it.

This is crazy stuff!!! Never thought that blood type could determine the outcome of your child at birth if lots of things weren't taken into consideration like Rh+ or Rh-. Someday I'm gonna want to have kids and guaranteed my partner is gonna have this shot every time !!! Take no chances :)

Little 'bout the Heart

The heart is a machine, works hard day in and day out, thank goodness :) It is located in the mediastinum which is between the lungs and the esophagus and trachea run through it. The esophagous and trachea run through a hole called the aortic hiatus part of the diaphram. The top of the heart is called the BASE (hmmm) and the bottom of the heart is called the APEX. Our heart is usually the size of your two fists that would kinda sit in a partially inflated balloon. It has an outerwrapping called the pericardial layer and an inner wrapping called the viseral layer or epicardium. The space between the inner and outer wrapping is called the pericardial space.

There is 3 layers of the Heart:

Endocaridum- Simple Squamous
Myocardium- Cardiac Muscle
Epicardium- Areolar Connective Tissue

An adult heart pumps 5 quarts of blood each minute! and approximately 2,000 gallons of blood each day throughout the body!!! And for Adults our heart only weighs about 8-10 ounces and is made up of 78% water. Crazy...

Our Blood =D Amazing Thing

Our blood is the reason we get out nutrients and oxygen, and how we get rid of all the bad wastes. Some of the nutrients supplied are glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids. Our blood circulates white blood cells which detect foreign material by ANTIBODIES. And another major thing our blood does is COAGULATION which is a part of our bodies self-repair mechanism. Blood regulates our body pH and also core temperature.

Adult males have about 6 liters of blood and adult females have about 5 liters of blood. Our red blood cells are created in red bone marrow and ephyfises at heads of femurs or flat bones (Ilicac bones, skull, sternum). Erythroblast and erythrocytes in the red bone marrow go into the blood within 24 hours and it ejects its nucleaus / DNA. Cells must become phagocytized after 90-120 days due to being worn out or damaged due to the lack of a nucleus.

We have five types of white blood cells from most to least "Never Let Monkeys Eat Bannannas," or ... Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, and Basophils. White blood cells are a huge key to our immune system and fight off all the pathogens that they come across.

Second Messenger System

Proteins cause proteins already in the cell to activate or deactivate. If it is active it will deactivate, and vice versa.

A hormone attachs to a protein causing shape change which changes the G Protein attached on the interface of the cell membrane. G Protein consists of Alpha, beta, and ganna. The alpha is realeased after exchanging GDP for GTP and attaches to a different enzyme on the interface of the cell membrane. It then scoops up ATP and releases a phosphate and creates cAMP where the 2nd messenger system kicks in. cAMP released binds to PKA takes a scoop of ATP, rips another phosphate which = ADP, and phosphate attachs to another enzyme & so on & so on.

Endocrine System 3/3/09 Facts

Endocrine system is crazy! Besides crazy its very interesting what our body does and how it functions. Who would have thought about all these different hormones that have large tolls on how our body fucntions, and without some of them we would not be able to survive!

A hormone is a chemical that is releases in the blood, usually coming from some sort of gland. It all starts in the grandaddy of them all the Hypothalmous gland. It has several different collections of cell bodies that each help control or regulate certain hormones: Paraventricular, Supra Optic, Pre Optic, Mammilary Bodies, and Suprachiasmatic Nuclei. These reflect the releasing of other hormones from other glands of the endocrine system.

Pineal Gland produces melatonin for us. This helps us sleep when its needed. Load up on melatonin and you'll be out like a bear thats hibernating.

Pituitary Gland or Hypophysis consists of two major glands that do lots for our body. It is made up of the Posterior Pituitary / Anterior Pituitary Gland. The Hypothalmous releases hormones to each gland differently even though they both make up the Pituitary Gland. The anterior portion receives it through a portal system involving the release or hormones into one capillary which flows to the anterior pituitary which then releases more hormones through a second capillarie into the blood stream. For the posterior pituitary gland it receives hormones from the hypothalmous nuerologically. The cell bodies stay in the hypothalmous while the axons extend down through into the posterior pituitary gland releasing hormones. This is called a Tract system.

Some Special Nerves

All the information I gathered last week that was very interesting to me was about all the major nerves we have within our body. From the brain to the legs, and knowing what each one does is very interesting and important to me for what I'm in store for the near future in my work field (Surgical Technology).

It all starts with the cranial nerves (12), and the types of nerves they are. Each one has a specific number going from 1-12.

#1 - Olfactory Nerve: Sensory nerve which function is smell.

#2- Optic Nerve: Sensory nerve which function is vision.

#3- Oculomotor Nerve: Mixed nerve which has multiple functions. Its sensory function is proprioception, somatic motor function is movement of the upper eyelid and eyeball, and its autonomic motor function alters lens for near vision and constricts pupil.

#4- Trochlear Nerve: Mixed nerve with two functions. Its sensory function is proprioception and its somatic motor function is movement of the eyeball.

#5- Trigeminal Nerve: Mixed nerve with two functions but consists of three major branches: Ophthalmic nerve, Maxillary Nerve, and Mandibular Nerve. Its functions for sensory is to convey impulses for touch, pain, and temperature sensations and proprioception. Its somatic motor function is chewing.

#6- Abducens Nerve: Mixed nerve with two functions. The sensory function is propriception, and the somatic motor function is movement of the eyeball.

#7 Facial Nerve: Mixed Nerve with three functions. Sensory function is taste and proprioception. Somatic Motor function is facial expression. Autonomic Motor function is secretion of tears and saliva.

#8 Vestibulocochlear Nerve: Sensory nerve with two functions. Vestibular branch function conveys impulses related to equilibrium, and Cochlear branch function conveys impulses for hearing.

#9 Glossopharyngeal Nerve: Mixed nerve with three functions. One is the sensory function that takes care of taste and somatic sensations (touch, pain, temperature) from posterior third of tongue; proprioception in swallowing muscles; monitoring of blood pressure; monitoring of O2 and CO2 in blood for regulation of breathing. Somatic motor function elevates the pharynx during swallowing and speech. Autonomic motor function stimulates secretion of saliva.

#10 Vagus Nerve: Mixed nerve with three major functions. Sensory function also takes care of taste and somatic sensations (touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception) from epiglottis and pharynx; monitoring of blood pressure; monitoring of 02 and CO2 in blood for regulation of breathing; sensations from visceral organs in thorax and abdomen. Somatic motor function controls swallowing, coughing, and voice production. Autonomic motor function handles muscle contraction and relaxation in organs of the GI tract; slowing of the heart rate; secretion of digestive fluids.

#11 Accessory Nerve: Mixed nerve that has two functions. Sensory function takes care of proprioception, and somatic motor functions swallowing and movement of head and shoulders.

#12 Hypoglossal Nerve: Mixed nerve with two functions. Sensory functions proprioception, and motor functions movement of tongue during speech and swallowing.

Week 2 Continuing the Education of Nuerotransmitters :)

Week 2 consisted of learning more about nuerotransmitters and their functions, and also where it all began later on in the week.

The only excitable cells are: Muscle (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac). The change in activity is based on charge!

Bonds are being broken in the ASE of the ATP. ATP is Adenosine Tryphosphate which is a nucleotide acid. ATP uses the break off of carbon atoms to move ions from low to high concentration. The ratio for ATP is 3/2 Sodium ions to Pottassium Ions.

Ach is the only sodium ion channel that will open with a Nuerotransmitter. A receptor is the channel. VRC is postively charged and takes place at the axon hillock. CRC channels are located at the dendrites. Slow gates or channels are always open, and the fast gates or channels opens when Ach attachs. Nuerotransmitter #1 is the Pre Syn, and Nuerotransmitter #2 is the Post Syn.

Astrocytes are the accessorie cell that determines how much calcium is extra to push through sodium ions from N.T. #1 to N.T. #2. Astrocytes are star shaped and are the former of the blood brain barrier. They filter cells. If nuerons die they cannot undergo mitosis, and will become scar tissue.

Capillaries have the smallest diameter which means higher resistance and better for diffusion of cells. Capillaries are made up up tubes from simple squamous cells.

Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths in the CNS (brain and spinal). One oligodendrocyte can wrap multiple axons (hundreds). They can go undergo mitosis but is very difficult after wrapping many axons they cannot go in one direction, and is very unlikely to occur.

Schwann cells form myelin sheaths in the PNS. They can undergo mitosis and can retarget after being severed or highly damaged which is called Wallerian Regeneration. They can only wrap around one axon which enables them to fix itself after being severed or highly damaged.

Microglia is the smallest of the CNS. Phagocytic, defense cells in the CNS. Microglia is "the little pac man" They ingulf foreign material and release enzymes.

Ependymal Cells produce, help circulate cerebrospinal fluid in the CNS. CSF is an extract of blood. Porous Capillaries = Fenestrated Capillaries + ependymal cells = choroid plexous. Ependymal cells sit on the fenestrated capillaries that are "leaky" to make CSF.

WEEK 1 Class Overview /// Nuerotransmitters!!!

After week one it was definitely time for a little review from A&P 1. We did start right where we left off though at neurons, and neurotransmitters woohooo.

Some things I learned in our first week was for sure how the class was going to go over which included homework assignments, quizzes, projects, etc. We are only required to buy one book (Anatomy and Physiology: From Science to Life, 2007), but recommended is Physiology Coloring Book, Mosby's Medical, Nursing and Allied Heath Dictionary, and Netter, Atlas of Anatomy.

For a little review I got refreshed about Ions, both sodium and potassium. Cations are postively charged and responsible for putting cells to rest. Sodium Ions are responsible for exciting cells. Both sodium and potassium are +1 charge.

Afferent means toward. Efferent means away from. Afferent is the sensory in nervous system versus efferent being the motar in the nervous system. When talking about the Brain and the Spinal Cord that means talking about the CNS or Central Nervous System. Nerves are collections of axons. Nerves are like highways, different highways have different targets, just like nerves.

Nuerons produce nuerotransmitters. MMJ nuerotransmitter is Ach. Ach is released onto muscle at the MMJ. Every nueron makes a certain nuerotransmitter. Examples of nerotransmitters are saratonin, acycholine, and dopine.

Dendrites have receptors deeply embeded to receive nurotransmitters. Nuerotransmitters are proteins, and receptors. Each protein has its own unique shape / function. Receptors can be multitaskers and bind to more than one nuerotransmitter.

Nuerotransmitters have three different stages, resting state, Inactive, and Resting Potential. Resting State is -70 mv. Once it gets to -55mv it is determined as action potential threshold and there is no turning back, all or nothing.

In the resting state the channel has a gate. The receptor is the gate, and when the Nuerotransmitter binds to the receptor/gate the gate opens and floods with sodium ions !!! This is called DEPOLARIZATION!!! Decrease in charged nuerotransmitters is known as REPOLARIZATION. Whenever it goes under -70mv for a brief second it is known as HYPERPOLARIZATION.